Science, Art and Religion

Register      Login

VOLUME 1 , ISSUE 1 ( January-March, 2022 ) > List of Articles

REVIEW ARTICLE

Assisted Birthing and Breastfeeding in Humans: Evolutionary Advantage or Threat during COVID-19 Pandemic

Keywords : Breastfeeding, COVID-19, Evolution, Midwifery, Salutogenesis

Citation Information : Assisted Birthing and Breastfeeding in Humans: Evolutionary Advantage or Threat during COVID-19 Pandemic. 2022; 1 (1):28-36.

DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-11005-0015

License: CC BY-NC 4.0

Published Online: 06-05-2022

Copyright Statement:  Copyright © 2022; The Author(s).


Abstract

The review aims to discuss why assisted birth, breastfeeding, and non-separation of the mother and newborn baby are important from the evolutionary and salutogenic points of view. Even though after successful delivery, the mother is ready to continue caring for her offspring by closeness and warmth (skin-to-skin contact), with decreasing offspring's level of stress and compensating energy expenditure of the fetus during delivery by early breastfeeding of the neonate after birth, which has a long-lasting evolution of 200 to 300 million of years. During COVID-19 pandemic these natural principles of care for human offspring have been considered potentially dangerous. This non-respectful approach toward the natural processes has resulted in guidelines and recommendations advocating for the separation of the SARS-CoV-2 positive mother from her newborn infant and sometimes even abandoning breastfeeding. In the care for mothers and their children during the COVID-19 pandemic, it seems very important to find ways how to maintain health and well-being, having on mind concepts of salutogenesis and resilience. This approach includes the provision of care minimizing medicalization and iatrogenic intervention, with the promotion and enhancement of a positive state of health. With increasing knowledge on COVID-19 infection and SARS-CoV-2 virus in the perinatal period, most of the organizations have been advocating for the protection, promotion, and support to early initiation of breastfeeding and non-separation of SARS-CoV-2 positive mothers well enough to breastfeed if willing to do so. This complies with the long-lasting evolution of assistance during labor (midwifery) and breastfeeding, and the ethical principle “do no harm.”


HTML PDF Share
  1. Pan W, Gu T, Pan Y, et al. Birth intervention and non-maternal infant-handling during parturition in a nonhuman primate. Primates 2014;55(4):483–488. DOI: 10.1007/s10329-014-0427-1.
  2. Rane A, Iyer J, Ananthram H, et al. Can we deliver better? J Obstet Gynaecol India 2017;67(3):157–161. DOI: 10.1007/s13224-017-0981-8.
  3. Karasavvas T. The Evolution of Human Birth: An Incredible Story a Million Years in the Making; 2017. https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/evolution-human-birth-incredible-story-million-years-making-007976
  4. Laudicina NM, Rodriguez F, DeSilva JM. Reconstructing birth in Australopithecus sediba. PLoS One 2019;14(9):e0221871. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221871.eCollection.2019.
  5. Di Mascio D, Sen C, Saccone G, et al. Risk factors associated with adverse fetal outcomes in pregnancies affected by Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a secondary analysis of the WAPM study on COVID-19. J Perinat Med 2020; 48(9): 950–958. DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2020-0355. Erratum in: J Perinat Med. 2020;49(1):111–115.
  6. McFann K, Baxter BA, LaVergne SM, et al. Quality of life (QoL) is reduced in those with severe COVID-19 disease, post-acute sequelae of COVID-19, and hospitalization in United States adults from Northern Colorado. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021;18(21):11048. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111048.
  7. Murphy CA, O'Reilly DP, Edebiri O, et al. The effect of COVID-19 infection during pregnancy; evaluating neonatal outcomes and the impact of the B.1.1.7. variant. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2021;40(12):e475–e481. DOI: 10.1097/INF.0000000000003352.
  8. Madjunkov M, Dviri M, Librach C. A comprehensive review of the impact of COVID-19 on human reproductive biology, assisted reproduction care and pregnancy: a Canadian perspective. J Ovarian Res 2020;13(1):140. DOI: 10.1186/s13048-020-00737-1.
  9. Moodley J, Khaliq OP, Mkhize PZ. Misrepresentation about vaccines that are scaring women. Afr J Prim Health Care Fam Med 2021;13(1):e1–e2. DOI: 10.4102/phcfm.v13i1.2953
  10. Parums DV. Editorial: Maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection and pregnancy outcomes from current global study data. Med Sci Monit 2021;27:e933831. DOI: 10.12659/MSM.933831.
  11. Stanojević M. Are Covid-19-positive mothers dangerous for their term and well newborn babies? Is there an answer? J Perinat Med 2020;48(5):441–445. DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2020-0186.
  12. Wan DY, Luo XY, Dong W, et al. Current practice and potential strategy in diagnosing COVID-19. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2020;24(8):4548–4553. DOI: 10.26355/eurrev_202004_21039.
  13. Hirata S, Fuwa K, Sugama K, et al. Mechanism of birth in chimpanzees: humans are not unique among primates. Biol Lett 2011;7(5):686–688. DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2011.0214.
  14. Gruss LT, Schmitt D. The evolution of the human pelvis: changing adaptations to bipedalism, obstetrics and thermoregulation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015;370(1663):20140063. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0063
  15. Berger GS, Gillings DB, Siegel E. The evaluation of regionalized perinatal health care programs Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;125(7):924–932.
  16. Kunz SN, Phibbs CS, Profit J. The changing landscape of perinatal regionalization. Semin Perinatol 2020;44(4):151241. DOI: 10.1016/j.semperi.2020.151241
  17. Yu VY, Dunn PM. Development of regionalized perinatal care. Semin Neonatol 2004;9(2):89–97. DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2003.08.011
  18. Hein HA. Regionalized perinatal care in North America. Semin Neonatol 2004;9(2):111–116. DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2003.08.009.
  19. Paul VK, Singh M. Regionalized perinatal care in developing countries. Semin Neonatol 2004; 9(2): 117–124. DOI: 10.1016/j.siny.2003.08.010.
  20. Clesse C, Lighezzolo-Alnot J, de Lavergne S, et al.. The evolution of birth medicalisation: a systematic review. Midwifery 2018;66:161–167. DOI: 10.1016/j.midw.2018.08.003.
  21. Lawn JE, Blencowe H, Oza S, et al. Every Newborn: progress, priorities, and potential beyond survival. Lancet 2014; 384(9938): 189–205. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60496-7.
  22. Barros AJD, Wehrmeister FC, Ferreira LZ, et al. Are the poorest poor being left behind? Estimating global inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health. BMJ Glob Health 2020;5(1):e002229. DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002229.
  23. Hasan MM, Magalhaes RJS, Fatima Y, et al. Levels, trends, and inequalities in using institutional delivery services in low- and middle-income countries: a stratified analysis by facility type. Glob Health Sci Pract 2021;9(1):78–88. DOI: 10.9745/GHSP-D-20-00533.
  24. Joseph G, da Silva ICM, Fink G, et al. Absolute income is a better predictor of coverage by skilled birth attendance than relative wealth quintiles in a multicountry analysis: comparison of 100 low- and middle-income countries. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2018;18(1):104. DOI: 10.1186/s12884-018-1734-0.
  25. World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF. Implementation Guidance: Protecting, Promoting and Supporting Breastfeeding in Facilities Providing Maternity and Newborn Services: The Revised Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative; 2018. Accessible at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272943/9789241513807-eng.pdf?ua=1 (Accessed Nov 12, 2021)
  26. FIGO (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics); International Confederation of Midwives; White Ribbon Alliance; International Pediatric Association; World Health Organization: Mother-baby friendly birthing facilities. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2015;128(2):95–99. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijgo.2014.10.013.
  27. Ayerle GM, Schäfers R, Mattern E, et al. Effects of the birthing room environment on vaginal births and client-centred outcomes for women at term planning a vaginal birth: BE-UP, a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Trials 2018;19(1):641. DOI: 10.1186/s13063-018-2979-7.
  28. Nilsson C, Wijk H, Höglund L, et al. Effects of birthing room design on maternal and neonate outcomes: a systematic review. HERD 2020;13(3):198–214. DOI: 10.1177/1937586720903689.
  29. Hrdy SB. Variable postpartum responsiveness among humans and other primates with “cooperative breeding”: a comparative and evolutionary perspective. Horm Behav 2016;77:272–83. DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.10.016.
  30. Umer S. A brief history of human evolution: challenging Darwin's claim. Int J Anthropol Ethnol 2018;2: 6. DOI: 10.1186/s41257-018-0014-2
  31. Bouchet H, Plat A, Levréro F, et al. Baby cry recognition is independent of motherhood but improved by experience and exposure. Proc Biol Sci 2020;287(1921):20192499. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2499.
  32. Rogers FD, Bales KL. Mothers, fathers, and others: neural substrates of parental care. Trends Neurosci 2019;42(8): 552–562. DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2019.05.008.
  33. Kostandy RR, Ludington-Hoe SM. The evolution of the science of kangaroo (mother) care (skin-to-skin contact). Birth Defects Res 2019;111(15):1032–1043. DOI: 10.1002/bdr2.1565.
  34. World Health Organization (WHO), UNICEF. Protecting, Promoting, and Supporting Breastfeeding in Facilities Providing Maternity and Newborn Services: The Revised Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative 2018. Implementation Guidance. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/infantfeeding/bfhi-implementation/en/ (Accessed November 21, 2021)
  35. Abdulghani N, Edvardsson K, Amir LH. Worldwide prevalence of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact after vaginal birth: a systematic review. PLoS One 2018;13(10):e0205696. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205696.
  36. Ali NB, Priyanka SS, Bhui BR, et al. Prevalence and factors associated with skin-to-skin contact (SSC) practice: findings from a population-based cross-sectional survey in 10 selected districts of Bangladesh. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2021;21(1):709. DOI: 10.1186/s12884-021-04189-3.
  37. Moore ER, Bergman N, Anderson GC, et al. Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;11(11):CD003519. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003519.pub4.
  38. Bystrova K, Matthiesen AS, Vorontsov I, et al. Maternal axillar and breast temperature after giving birth: effects of delivery ward practices and relation to infant temperature. Birth 2007;34(4):291–300. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-536X.2007.00187.x
  39. Karimi FZ, Heidarian Miri H, Salehian M, et al. The effect of mother-infant skin to skin contact after birth on third stage of labor: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Iran J Public Health 2019;48(4):612–620. DOI: 10.18502/ijph.v48i4.982
  40. Safari K, Saeed AA, Hasan SS, et al. The effect of mother and newborn early skin-to-skin contact on initiation of breastfeeding, newborn temperature and duration of third stage of labor. Int Breastfeed J 2018;13:32. DOI: 10.1186/s13006-018-0174-9.
  41. Ghojazadeh M, Hajebrahimi S, Pournaghi-Azar F, et al. Effect of kangaroo mother care on successful breastfeeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Rev Recent Clin Trials 14(1):31–40. DOI: 10.2174/1574887113666180924165844
  42. Karimi FZ, Miri HH, Khadivzadeh T, et al. The effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact immediately after birth on exclusive breastfeeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Turk Ger Gynecol Assoc 2020;21(1):46–56. DOI: 10.4274/jtgga.galenos.2019.2018.0138.
  43. Li L, Song H, Zhang Y, et al. Breastfeeding supportive services in baby-friendly hospitals positively influenced exclusive breastfeeding practice at hospitalization discharge and six months postpartum. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021;18(21):11430. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111430.
  44. Brimdyr K, Cadwell K, Svensson K, et al. The nine stages of skin-to-skin: practical guidelines and insights from four countries. Matern Child Nutr 2020;16(4):e13042. DOI: 10.1111/mcn.13042.
  45. Widström A-M, Lilja G, Aaltomaa-Michalias P, et al. Newborn behaviour to locate the breast when skin-to-skin: a possible method for enabling early self-regulation. Acta Paediatr Oslo Nor 1992; 2011:79–85. DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01983.x
  46. Bueichekú E, Gonzalez-de-Echavarri JM, Ortiz-Teran L, et al. Divergent connectomic organization delineates genetic evolutionary traits in the human brain. Sci Rep 2021;11(1):19692. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99082-6.
  47. Enard W. The molecular basis of human brain evolution. Curr Biol. 2016;26(20):R1109-R1117. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.030.
  48. Feldman R. The neurobiology of human attachments. Trends Cogn Sci 2017;21(2):80–99. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2016.11.007.
  49. Nordahl D, Rognmo K, Bohne A. Adult attachment style and maternal-infant bonding: the indirect path of parenting stress. BMC Psychol. 2020;8:58. DOI: 10.1186/s40359-020-00424-2.
  50. Lucas A. Scientific evidence for breastfeeding. N Nutr Inst Workshop Ser 2019;90:1–12. DOI: 10.1159/000490290.
  51. Bixia H, Xinyuan L, Yangzhen C, et al. SARS-CoV-2 and Malayan pangolin coronavirus infect human endoderm, ectoderm and induced lung progenitor cells. bioRxiv 2020;09.25.313270; DOI: 10.1101/2020.09.25.313270.
  52. World Health Organization (WHO). Considerations in Adjusting Public Health and Social Measures in the Context of COVID-19 (Interim Guidance, 16 April 2020) (WHO 2020). https://www.who.int/publications-detail/considerations-in-adjusting-public-health-and-social-measures-in-the-context-of-covid-19-interim-guidance (Accessed November 28, 2021)
  53. Api O, Sen C, Debska M, et al. Clinical management of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in pregnancy: recommendations of WAPM-World Association of Perinatal Medicine. J Perinat Med 2020;48(9):857–866. DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2020-0265.
  54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Interim Considerations for Infection Prevention and Control of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Inpatient Obstetric Healthcare Settings. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-nCoV/hcp/infection-control.html
  55. Dashraath P, Wong JLJ, Lim MXK, et al. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2020;222(6):521–531. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2020.03.021.
  56. Kurjak. Pandemic corona virus issue - how do we respond? J Perinat Med 2020;48(5):426–427. DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2020-0198
  57. Maternal and Fetal Experts Committee, Chinese Physician Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chinese Medical Doctor Association, Obstetric Subgroup, et al. Proposed management of 2019-novel coronavirus infection during pregnancy and puerperium. Chin J Perinat Med 2020;23(2):73–79. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1007-9408.2020.02.001.
  58. Poon LC, Yang H, Kapur A, et al. Global interim guidance on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) during pregnancy and puerperium from FIGO and allied partners: information for healthcare professionals. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2020;149(3):273–286. DOI: 10.1002/ijgo.13156.
  59. Puopolo KM, Hudak ML, Kimberlin DW, et al. Initial guidance: management of infants born to mothers with COVID-19. Available from: https://downloads.aap.org/AAP/PDF/COVID%2019%20Initial%20Newborn%20Guidance.pdf.
  60. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, The Royal College of Midwives: Coronavirus (COVID-19) Infection in Pregnancy. Information for Healthcare Professionals. Version 8: Published Friday 17 April 2020. https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/2020-04-17-coronavirus-covid-19-infection-in-pregnancy.pdf (Accessed April 25, 2020)
  61. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: Outpatient Assessment and Management for Pregnant Women with Suspected or Confirmed Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19). https://www.acog.org/-/media/project/acog/acogorg/files/pdfs/clinical-guidance/practice-advisory/covid-19-algorithm.pdf (Accessed on April 25, 2020)
  62. COVID-19 and Infant Feeding Working Group (CIF WG). Aligning Best Practices and Addressing Misinformation for Optimal Infant Feeding during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Accessible at: https://path.azureedge.net/media/documents/Covid-misinfo-brief-210127.pdf (Accessed November 29, 2021)
  63. Grünebaum A, Dudenhausen J, McCullough LB, et al. Women and children first: the need for ring-fencing during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Perinat Med 2020. DOI: 10.1515/jpm-2020-0149.
  64. Perez-Botella M, Downe S, Magistretti CM, et al. The use of salutogenesis theory in empirical studies of maternity care for healthy mothers and babies. Sex Reprod Healthc 2015;6(1):33–39. DOI: 10.1016/j.srhc.2014.09.001.
  65. Smith V, Daly D, Lundgren I, et al. Protocol for the development of a salutogenic intrapartum core outcome set (SIPCOS). BMC Med Res Methodol 2017;17(1):61. DOI: 10.1186/s12874-017-0341-5.
PDF Share
PDF Share

© Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) LTD.