Citation Information :
Ruud N. Toward a Third Dimension of Belief or Lack Thereof: Ruminations on the Future of the Science–Religion Debate. 2025; 4 (1):20-24.
This paper proposes an expanded three-dimensional model for understanding belief systems and an individual's posture toward knowledge with the addition of a spectrum housing determinism and free will. By combining these three dimensions, the framework allows for a more nuanced classification of belief or lack thereof, with eight resulting categories.
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While insignificant to this argument, I have elsewhere proposed that no one can be fully atheistic to the classical or traditional God; an entity who is all good, all powerful, and all knowing. This, however, could be important here as it leaves room for other types of largely non-Western interpretations of deity to be included, though when it comes to religious determinism below I utilize only Christian examples. See “The Impossibility of an Atheistic Posture toward the Classical God,” Spectrum (in press).
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Johnson P. A History of Christianity. Atheneum; 1976, p. 287. While both examples could be seen as compatibilist in nature, there is still a clear element of determination at play; particularly in universalism, even with scholars such as Ilaria Ramelli noting “the eventual restoration and salvation depends on Christ's sacrifice … but this does not contradict human free will” in A Larger Hope? Vol. 1 (Cascade, 2019), 57.
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For a fabulous survey on the matter see Mark Balaguer, Free Will. MIT Press, 2014.
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